Marriage Verses Living Together Free Essays

I remember when my husband and I were dating and we both decided to move in with each other rather quickly. We both felt in order to really get to know one another; we had to see how compatible we both were. Because of this, in just a short three years, we were married but living together really proved to be a valuable lesson for the future. We will write a custom essay sample on Marriage Verses Living Together or any similar topic only for you Order Now In today’s society many people are getting married and divorced at record rates which are really affecting people views psychologically when it comes to marriage vs. cohabitation; therefore, I plan on exploring both options to see how both of these options work. A marriage is a legally binding agreement that grants each partner a wider range of rights and responsibilities. Ending this type of relationship requires a legal procedure. Cohabitation is the act of living together without a legally recognized union. This allows individuals to part ways with less difficulty than if they were married. However, both kinds of couples do live together and therefore spend most of their time together. Married people and cohabiting people are in serious relationships, they don’t generally decide to cohabit with someone they are just casually dating. People who are married are extremely committed to one another but neither couple will be unsure of their relationship or in a relationship with someone they don’t know very well. Married or cohabiting couples don’t have to completely pool their resources; both kinds of couples do have a financial stake in the relationship. At the very least, both will pay half of the rent or mortgage on a house or apartment. This means that both people in both kinds of relationships have something tangible to lose should the relationship fail. Married and cohabiting people are in intimate relationships. This essentially always includes some sexual intimacy; if there is no sexual intimacy in a married or cohabiting relationship, then it is not really a marriage or even a romantic relationship. While some people date without living together and not having sex, couples who live together are almost always in sexual relationships, whether they’re married or not. People commonly insist that a piece of paper, referring to the marriage license, is the only difference between marriage and cohabitation, this is far from being true. A marriage license is a document that drastically alters a relationship. One major way that it does this is by preserving the relationship even if one or both partners walk away. Marriages do not simply dissolve because individuals do not like the way that things are going and wish to invest their energy elsewhere. Instead, a couple must go through a divorce and have a court terminate their relationship. When two people cohabit, they live according to an agreement that may be based on a number of factors, such as emotions or financial convenience, but generally there is no legal responsibility binding one to the other. If the moment arises when the situation no longer seems suitable, both parties can instantly sever their ties. In most jurisdictions, there is not a special body of law regulating how cohabitants’ property should be divided or how the least financially fit partner should be cared for after the break up. With married partners, however, these are major considerations. Another major difference between marriage and cohabitation is liberty. When people marry, they take vows, which are legal and usually religiously sanctioned promises. A married person is not free to enter into intimate relations with other people. In addition to the threat of divorce and the financial ramifications that it can have for the guilty party, it is also possible in many states for one spouse to sue another for adultery. When people cohabitate, relinquishing the liberty to intimately fraternize with others is a choice, and if a person act contrarily, it poses no legal threat. Marriage and cohabitation also differ with regards to the decision-making. Spouses belong to one another, and if there is a life or death decision to be made and one person is unable to do so, her partner will be called upon to act on her behalf. When individuals are cohabiting, they do not generally gain the right or responsibility of making decisions for their partners, no matter how long they stay together. While many people choose to live together, others still prefer marriage. Research has shown that couples who marry generally feel more secure and are more committed to making their relationship work. People should never move in together for convenience. It should be a well thought decision that is preceded by plenty of discussion and planning. How to cite Marriage Verses Living Together, Papers

Alternative Dispute Resolution World Perspective †MyAssignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about the Alternative Dispute Resolution World Perspective. Answer: Introduction Contract can be defined as a promise undertaken in which one side of the party promises to pay the consideration and in exchange of this the other party undertakes the task which has been promised under the contract. For creating any contract, there is a need to establish the existence of certain elements and these include an offer, its acceptance, value of consideration, capacity to contract, clarity of terms and the intention of creating a contract. In case the promise made under the contract is not fulfilled, a breach of contract occurs (Mulcahy, 2008). When such happens, the parties could opt for litigation, or solve the dispute through Alternative Dispute Redressal (ADR) methods. In the upcoming segments, the discussion has been carried on these very issues. In this case, the main issue is whether a contract had been rightly created in this case and where it was, between which particular parties was it done. The very first requirement in forming the contract is an offer, in which one party has to offer the other party some terms. It is important that a differentiation has been made between an offer and an undertaken invitation to treat. Invitation to treat shows that the parties want to initiate the negotiations, whereas the offer shows that the parties want to create lawful relationship (Roach, 2016). The differentiation between the two can become important when it comes to the published advertisements. Where the published advertisement covers a unilateral offer, which can be accepted by performing on the terms of such published advertisement, it is an offer as was seen in Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company [1893] 1 QB 256. But, in general this is not the case and the published advertisement are deemed as invitation to treat as was seen in Partridge v Crittenden [1968] 1 WLR 1204 (Latimer, 2012). Once the offer has been made by one party, the same needs to be given an explicit acceptance by the party to which the offer had been made. Further, it is crucial that the offer is accepted in the exact manner as it was made, and if the same is changed or altered, instead of being an acceptance, it would become a counter offer. Once that happens, Hyde v. Wrench (1840) 3 Beav 334 provides that the original offer expires (Marson Ferris, 2015). Also, silence cannot be deemed as valid acceptance as per Felthouse v Bindley (1862) EWHC CP J35 (Andrews, 2015). The date of acceptance is a crucial element in acceptance and is taken to be the date on which the acceptance reaches the offering party. Though, a major exception to this rule is covered under the postal rules of acceptance. As per these rules, the date on which the letter of acceptance is posted, is to be taken as the date of acceptance. The rationale for upholding the validity stems from the fact that the postal office is given the position of being the implied agent of the party which offered. And in such cases, the date on which the letter actually reaches the offering party remains irrelevant. The presence of acceptance was established in Adams v. Lindsell (1818) 106 ER 250 due to postal rules of acceptance (Gibson Fraser, 2013). The third key requirement under the contract formation is for the contract to have valid consideration. It could be anything so long as it has an economic value (Treitel Peel, 2015). The three wrappers were accepted as the rightful consideration by the court in Chappel Co Ltd v Nestle Co Ltd [1960] AC 87 due to the condition precent, thus upholding the validity of contract (E-Law Resources, 2017). There is a need to show that the parties had the capacity to enter into lawful relation. In this regard, the parties have to have the legal age and also sound mind for entering into the contract (Paterson, Robertson Duke, 2012). The parties need to have the intention of creating lawful relations, which attracts legal responsibility and legal liability (Paterson, Robertson Duke, 2012). The terms of the contract have to be clear to contracting parties, as they give rise to different rights and liabilities for the parties (Paterson, Robertson Duke, 2012). From the case study given here, it becomes clear that an offer had been made by Alan through his FB post of November 01st. The reason for deeming it as offer stems from the applicability of Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company, since it could be accepted by paying the asked price, which would be deemed as acceptance by performance. The reply of Bernard, on the FB post of Alan would be deemed as a counter offer as the terms of the original offer were changed, and based on Hyde v. Wrench the original FB offer was cancelled for Bernard. This counter offer was rejected by Alan and the original terms were offered again. By posting the money, this offer was accepted by Bernard. And the acceptance date here would be November 04th as a result of the applicability of the postal rules. This can also be established from the fact that Bernard had asked Alan to look out for the money. As there is nothing contrary to show that the other elements of contract formation were not present, a contract would be deemed to have been formed between Alan and Bernard. The offer had been made only to the students of Kaplan and friends of Alan. As Charleen was none of these, a contract was not made here. If the communication of Charleen is deemed as an offer, Alan remained silent on it so an acceptance was not attained on the basis of Felthouse v Bindley and so, here also a contract was not formed. The offer had been made to Damien on the basis of him being a student of Kaplan. By handing over the cash, he also accepted the offer. The date of acceptance here comes later than that of Bernard as Damiens acceptance was attained on November 04th evening. And so, a contract was also formed between Damien and Alan. As has been stated in the introductory segment, the non-fulfilment of the promise made in the contract is deemed as a breach of contract. Once such happens, the aggrieved party can apply for monetary damages or could also opt for equitable remedies, for instance, injunction order or an order for specific performance (Latimer, 2012). When a person makes a false statement during the negotiations of a contract, only to induce the other party into the contract formation, it is deemed as misrepresentation and this gives the option to the aggrieved party to get the contract rescinded as presence of misrepresentation makes the contract voidable (Latimer, 2012). In this case, Alan had to sell the book to Bernard which he attained from university, along with the handwritten notes. Though, this promise was not fulfilled as the handwritten notes were not given to him. This would allow Bernard to initiate a case of breach of contract and seek compensation from Alan and also, apply for specific performance or injunction whereby Alan could be asked to give the handwritten notes to Bernard or be stopped from giving the same to Damien. A case of misrepresentation can also be made as the false statement was made by Alan to induce Bernard into the contract. In this case, the promise made by Alan to Damien was not upheld as he was not given the book which was promised in the offer and instead had been given a book which had been brought from the store. Hence, Damien can sue Alan for breaching the contract and claim monetary compensation and injunction order to stop Alan from selling the promised book to Bernard or seek specific injunction, to force Alan to sell the book to him. And he can also make a claim of misrepresentation as he was also made a false statement to by Alan. The most famous method of ADR is arbitration in which the parties to the dispute usually cover in the contracts, that in case of a dispute the arbitration is the method which has to be used to solve the dispute. Under this method, the parties to the dispute select an odd number of arbitrators, i.e., one or three. If the parties are not able to select one arbitrator, each party chose one arbitrator and these two arbitrators mutually chose a third arbitrator. There are different advantages of opting for this method as the costs of litigations are saved in this method. Also, the arbitration award has to be followed by the parties but the disadvantage which is present here is that for strict enforcement of the arbitration award, a court order is needed. Though, upon the arbitration award being affirmed by court, it has to be followed strictly (Fiadjoe, 2013). Conciliation is another method under the ADR in which the conciliator meets each party separately and makes attempts to solve the dispute at hand. There are again, different advantages of this method, which includes that the parties can suggest the possible solution to the dispute and can agree to the particular solution; there is also less chance of damaging the relationship between the two parties as the dispute is resolved amicably and with mutual consent; the matter not only remains confidential but also private, as the conciliation is not a public matter, like the court litigations. Though, this method is also coupled with certain disadvantages included in which are, the powers of the parties to refuse the solution given through conciliation, the failure of reaching a mutual agreement, and the matter being escalated further due to the absence of a proper legal adviser for the parties (Fiadjoe, 2013). The third most famous method of ADR is mediation where the parties elect a mediation who makes the attempts to resolve the matter after hearing each side and by applying different negotiation techniques. The mediator tries to mediate the matter peacefully. Again, the matter remains confidential and private and the parties have the control over the mediation result as the mediator is someone who is unbiased and fair. Again, in comparison to litigation, the costs associated with mediation are very less (Nolan-Haley, 2013). As was in the case of other two ADRs, this method is also coupled with various disadvantages. The mediator order is not binding on the parties, as is a court order and so the parties can chose to ignore the decision of the mediator. Hence, the time and money spent in mediation could be wasted in attempts to save this by opting for mediation instead of litigation. Also, in mediation, the parties cannot be forced to speak the truth, which can be done by the court through court order, and unlike court summons, a party cannot be forced to go forward with litigation. And the applicability of precedents is not done in mediation, so even when the facts and circumstances of two disputes are same, the decision of one cannot be applied on the other, as is done in cases of litigation (Nolan-Haley, 2013). References Andrews, N. (2015). Contract Law (2nd ed.). UK: Cambridge University Press E-Law Resources. (2017). Chappel v Nestle [1960] AC 87 House of Lords. Retrieved from: https://www.e-lawresources.co.uk/Chappel-v-Nestle.php Fiadjoe, A. (2013). Alternative Dispute Resolution: A Developing World Perspective. London: Cavendish Publishing Limited. Gibson, A., Fraser, D. (2014). Business Law 2014 (8th ed.). Melbourne, Pearson Education Australia. Latimer, P. (2012). Australian Business Law 2012 (31st ed.). Sydney, NSW: CCH Australia Limited. Mulcahy, L. (2008). Contract Law in Perspective (5th ed.). Oxon: Routledge. Nolan-Haley, J.M. (2013). Alternative Dispute Resolution in a Nutshell (4th ed.). Minnesota: West Academic. Paterson, J.M., Robertson, A., Duke, A. (2012). Principles of Contract Law (4th ed.). Rozelle, NSW: Thomson Reuters (Professional) Australia. Roach, L. (2016). Card and James' Business Law (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Treitel, G H., Peel, E. (2015). The Law of Contract (14th ed.). London: Sweet Maxwell.

Soros Essays - George Soros, Central European University

Soros Today I would like to talk about the most famous international speculator of them all Geroge Soros and how he went about braking the bank of England in September 1992 and quasy single handed terminate the ERM. I have always been very fascinated by international financial speculation and the actual power the individual investor has. George Soros is proberbly the worlds most famous hedge fund manager in the world.George Soros was born in Budapest, Hungary in 1930. In 1947 he emigrated to England, where he graduated from the London School of Economics. While a student at the London School of Economics, In 1956 he moved to the United States, where he began to accumulate a large fortune through an international investment fund he founded and managed. Mr. Soros currently serves as Chairman of Soros Fund Management LLC, a private investment management firm which serves as principal investment advisor to the Quantum Group of Funds recognized as having the best performance record of any investment fund in the world in its thirty-year history. Soros Philosophy is that every exchange rate is Flawed and he sat out to prove his theory in 1992 when he attacked the EMS system in late 1992. Before the reunification of Germany the ERM had proven to one of the strongest Exchange rate systems ever created but because Germany had to be the anchor of both the its own reunification and the EMR it created a a latent flaw in the ERM. The flaw was that because of the massive capital injection from west to East Germany and the 1-1 exchange rate a high inflations pressure was developed in Germany leading to an increase of interest rates. At the same time Europe and especially Britain was in a mode of recession meaning that they were not ready for such an interest hike by the Germans. This made the Pound very valuable and since the German bundeds bank were more focused on its own situation in regards to the reunification the brits were left on their own. Soros was the first to see this development and after attending a meeting with the German Bundesbank President saying that he believed more in a strong mark then in the Future ECU. Emdiatly after these signals soros went ahead and tested his flaw theory and short the Italian lira. The Italians was not in a position to defend them selves and because of Germanys home problems know help came from them . This was a sign to Soros that the pound also was valnuable. Once again he sold pounds and when the British central bank in a last desperate attempt raised nterest rate 2% it was a clear indicator for Soros that the pound was untangeblr and he went ahead and sell pound even more agressivly and by the end of that day the pound had to retrieve from ERM and Soros had made one billion $ The consequences of this attact on the pound was that the Britain's central bank wasted its reserves in an unsuccessful effort to defend the currency's value (40 billion $). Furthermore the episode derailed Britain's membership in a European initiative seeking to rationalize exchange rates -- and it earned Soros this sobriquet: the man who broke the Bank of England. Soros once again entered the international financial stage, to prove his theory that all exhange rate systems has flaws when he attaced the currencies of south East Asia. In early 1997, Soros' funds were shorting Thailand's currency, the baht, and Malaysia's currency, the ringgit -- that is, betting that the value of both currencies would drop. In July, Thailand dropped its defenses, Devaluing the baht. That set off the wave of devaluations in Malaysia and elsewhere that marked the beginning of a global economic turmoil. That conclude my little presentation on Soros and the power that speculators have in the current international financial system. However before ending I would like to hear you opinion to whether you find such speculations directly attacing counties currencies amoral and incorrect or if you believe that such actions are legitimate. Speech and Communication Essays

Marie of France, Countess of Champagne

Marie of France, Countess of Champagne Known for: French princess whose birth was a disappointment to parents who wanted a son to inherit the French throne Occupation: Countess of Champagne, regent for her husband and then for her son Dates: 1145 - March 11, 1198 Confusion with Marie de France, Poet Sometimes confused with Marie de France, Mary of France, a medieval poet of England in the 12th century whose Lais of Marie de France survive along with a translation of Aesops Fables into the English of the time and perhaps others works. About Marie of France, Countess of Champagne Marie was born to Eleanor of Aquitaine and Louis VII of France. That marriage was already shaky when Eleanor gave birth to a second daughter, Alix, in 1151, and the pair realized that they were not likely to have a son. Salic Law was interpreted to mean that a daughter or daughters husband could not inherit the crown of France. Eleanor and Louis had their marriage annulled in 1152, Eleanor left first for Aquitaine and then married the heir to Englands crown, Henry Fitzempress. Alix and Marie were left in France with their father and, later, stepmothers. Marriage In 1160, when Louis married his third wife, Adà ¨le of Champagne, Louis betrothed his daughters Alix and Marie to brothers of his new wife. Marie and Henry, Count of Champagne, were married in 1164. Henry went to fight in the Holy Land, leaving Marie as his regent. While Henry was away, Maries half-brother, Philip, succeeded their father as king, and seized the dower lands of his mother, Adà ¨le of Champagne, who was also Maries sister-iin-law. Marie and others joined Adà ¨le in opposing Philips action; by the time Henry returned from the Holy Land, Marie and Philip had settled their conflict. Widowhood When Henry died in 1181, Marie served as regent for their son, Henry II, until 1187. When Henry II went to the Holy Land to fight in a crusade, Marie again served as regent. Henry died in 1197, and Maries younger son Theobold succeeded him. Marie entered a convent and died in 1198. Courts of Love Marie may have been a patron of Andrà © le Chapelain (Andreas Capellanus), author of one of the works on courtly love, as a chaplain who served Marie was named Andreas (and Chapelain or Capellanus means chaplain). In the book, he attributes judgments to Marie and to her mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, among others. Some sources accept the claim that the book, De Amore and known in English as The Art of Courtly Love, was written at the request of Marie. There is no solid historical evidence that Marie of France with or without her mother presided at courts of love in France, though some writers have made that claim. Also known as:  Marie Capet; Marie de France; Marie, Countess of Champagne Background, Family: Mother:  Eleanor of AquitaineFather:  Louis VII of France  Stepmothers:  Constance of Castile, then Adà ¨le of ChampagneFull siblings: sister  Alix, Countess  of Blois; half siblings (father Louis VII): Marguerite of France, Alys of France, Philip II of France, Agnes of France. She also had half-siblings from her mothers second marriage, but theres not much evidence she interacted with them. Marriage, Children: husband: Henry I, Count of Champagne (married 1164)children:Scholastique of Champagne, married to William V of MaconHenry II of Champagne, 1166-1197Marie of Champagne, married to Baldwin I of ConstantinopleTheobald III of Champagne, 1179-1201

Argument on Censorship Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Argument on Censorship - Research Paper Example This paper is a critical evaluation of censorship both as a positive and a negative instrument. Censorship Censorship, as stated herein, is an instrument used by governments, religious groups, and media among other groups to prevent the flow of information, which has a real or perceived capacity of destabilizing the society. The government and other interested parties such as the church, have the role of ensuring that moral values are protected in the society by all means available. This is necessary especially with the ever increasing accessibility and utilization of internet resources, not only by adults but also under age users. Apparently, the internet has got thousands of sites, which contain pornographic contents ranging from videos, photographs and texts. In this era of high HIV prevalence, every parent must be worried and careful on the kind of information their children are getting from the internet as pornographic materials have the capacity of creating curiosity which may end up being satisfied through engagement in illicit sex. In order to achieve this, censorship on such materials is essential and every internet provider should be held accountable if they do not apply filter on such contents (Heins 58). However, censorship in the past has been used as a means of keeping the citizens in the dark and protecting governments from criticism (Jansen 22). In this context, laws are put in place with the intention of gagging institutions such as the media and monitoring the internet so as to ensure that they do not broadcast information which is anti government. China for example has been criticized several times for applying censorship to protect the communist party. In this case, critics indicate that the government is keen on covering up past and present failures of the party so as to let people continue believing that their government is perfect and responsible. In addition, it is believed that censorship in this country is also used to shun penetration of western ideologies in the society especially due to the fact that most of the western nations are pro democracy and in that aspect, allowing free flow of information from their sources may open the eyes of Chinese citizens to alternative forms of governance (Barbour 61). This in itself is highly unethical on the part of the government as it enhances ignorance on matters concerning politics and also creates a platform for mismanagement of public resources and limitation of fundamental human rights such as freedom of expression and the right to hold demonstrations. It also puts media personnel at loggerheads with the authorities, which puts them in danger of being arrested or losing their operating licenses (Jansen 36). Countries such as Ireland have also in the past passed legislations promoting censorship of books and other materials believed to touch on issues that are perceived to be sensitive. These are for example the Censorship of Publications Act, 1929, 1946 and 1967, whic h restricted the publishing or possession of materials discussing reproductive health (Maurice 19). This is to imply that any information regarding contraceptives, sex, condoms, abortion among others were not to be circulated in the society, a move which was seen as favoring the

To what extent did Malthus€™ philosophy influence Essay

To what extent did Malthusâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ philosophy influence Englandâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s policies towards Ireland preceding and during the Great Famine Cite 3 specific examples. Follow MLA protocol - Essay Example There were of course different interpretations of what constituted progress: Rousseau, Voltaire, and later Marx all had their ideas about it. One such theorist concerning the best means for improving the lot of all men was Thomas Malthus. His philosophy on the nature of man would later have a profound effect on English policy and attitudes toward Ireland. Malthus did not share in the absolutist claim that all men were equal as was the case with so many Enlightenment thinkers. But he did value man’s capacity for reason which means that he was certainly a man of his time. According to Malthus, humans stood apart from animals because of their possession of â€Å"reason and will.† â€Å"[Man] is motivated by his physical needs (necessity for food and shelter), ‘the passion between the sexes’ (love, and the ‘desire to possess a beautiful woman’), and the principles of self-love and benevolence† (Simons 1955, 61). It was that latter trait that Malthus most highlighted. Self-interest drives men to seek what they want, to work, and to reproduce. Mixed with the carnal impulses, this presented the very thing which governments must appeal to in order to enact effective social and economic policy. Malthus’ economic philosophy has often been summarized as being inhumane and indifferent to society’s poor. Many during his time believed that the advances being made in the sciences would contribute to a constant betterment of the plight of the poor and thus to the general progress of man. In his famous Essay Malthus said that an increase in food production would lead to a growth of population which would eventually become unsustainable and thus lead to collapse and chaos. â€Å"[M]arshes had been drained by the score in Ireland, with a consequent growth of population and no lessening of the pressure on resources† (Petersen 1979, 473). In order to confront this reality, Malthus proposed

What Does It Mean To Be Catholic Religion Essay

What Does It Mean To Be Catholic Religion Essay 2) A Presentation on Anglican Theology in Contemporary focus. This will be the equivalent to 2,000 words -students are encouraged to explore the possibility of using alternative forms of assessment such as artwork, liturgy, website design or other creative forms. What does it mean to be catholic in the Church of England today? Inheritance The English Reformation in the 16th century was unlike the disposition of the Continental Reformation (i.e. Luther, Zwingli and French-Calvinism). Whereas the Continental Reformation introduced changes in Church Order by eradicating the order of Bishops and priests, the English Reformation, led by the Monarch King Henry VIII, retained the order of the Church whilst embracing Reform. Henry VIII, a reformed catholic, wanted to guarantee the continuity of Englands Catholic Church and the teachings of the early Church Fathers in the Creeds. Elizabeth I, a Protestant Monarch, looked for a moderate position, a middle-way religion which tolerated Catholicism. This prevented division and dissent among her people and fashioned a stable English Church where its doctrines were laid down in the Thirty-Nine Articles of 1563, a compromise between Roman Catholics and Protestantism.(http://bookoflife.org/history/europe/northern_renaissance/calvin.htm Previous theologians in the English Church with high-church beliefs, were strongly convinced that the Church was Gods chosen instrument called forth over against the existing Protestant view that the Church was created as a convenient institute of the Christian Church body. The Oxford Movement (1833-1845) brought a reaction that changed everything. Key figures Keble and John-Henry Newman emphasized the importance of the historic continuity of the church signified by the apostolic succession of the bishops and its sacramental doctrine (Sykes. S. 1988. p.30) and were keen to go back to the pre-Reformation doctrine and liturgy maintained in most of the revised Prayer Books. (Jones.C.1992. p.108) The Catholic tradition has been reinforced by the Oxford Movement. An awareness of Catholic heritage entails being part of the universal Church of Jesus Christ in its fullest expression of faith treasured and continuous from the time of Constantine through the Middle Ages to today. It has stressed the importance of the visible Church and its sacraments and the belief that the ministry of bishops, priests and deacons is a sign and instrument of the Church of Englands Catholic and apostolic identity. (https://www.cofe.anglican.org/about/history/ index.html) and considered essential to the Church life and the Apostolic Ordering of the Church. Today there are many broad catholic groups in the Church of England; Anglo-Catholics, the Society of the Sacred Cross, Forward in Faith and Affirming Catholicism, These groups, however, are not always united. Their fragmentation dates to the Tractarian Revival and involves the question of the English Churchs identity and integrity. Within the last twenty years there have been tensions over the ordination of women to the sacred priesthood and more recently, over headship and consecration of women as Bishops. The fundamental issue is where the authority of the Church is located. Conservative and traditional Anglo-Catholics are in allegiance with Conservative Evangelicals in the Church of England over the leadership issue. Their belief is that Christ chose to ordain men (Mark 3: 13-19) and that the Apostles did not ordain women (Acts 1:12 -26). Priests, therefore, must be male to act in persona Christus and thus retain ecumenical census. Secondly, there is the teaching of St. Pauls I do not allow women to teach men or have authority over a man. (1Timothy 2:12) There is a sense of vitality when a church is living out the five affirmed marks of mission: proclaiming the Gospel, nurturing and baptizing new believers, transforming communities, loving service and speaking out against injustice and sustaining the earth while protecting the integrity of creation. (www.anglicancommunion.org) Signs of growth would include eventful worship, on-going evangelism and prayer among others. However, it is important to remember that most churches will not always be firing on all five cylinders of the marks of mission. Within Anglicanism the term churchmanship (low, broad and high) describes a distinctive comprehension of church doctrine and liturgical practices by Christians associated with the Church of England and world-wide Anglican Communion. High Churchmanship is referred to as the Anglo-Catholic tradition; a label derived from a sub-group who, influenced by the Oxford Movement, are part of a tradition that emphasizes the continuity with what has gone before; the Catholic tradition. Within high churchmanship there is a spectrum of catholic terminology; (Liberal/Inclusive, Traditional Anglo-Catholic, Modern / Moderate and Prayer -Book Catholics). Traditional Anglo-Catholics Most traditional Catholics are Papalists who see themselves under the authority of papal primacy without actually being in communion with the Roman Church. Full communion with Roman, Western and the Eastern Orthodox Church is desired because the Pope is seen, as being the Patriarch of the West under Roman jurisdiction. Anglo-Catholics have a devotion to our Blessed Virgin Mary under Marys title Our Lady of Walsingham. Theologically, for some Anglo-Catholics, having a devotion to the Eucharist may be more significant for their spiritual and personal prayer-life rather than the celebration of the Mass. The Church of England teaches that only two Sacraments are necessary for salvation; Baptism and Eucharist but there are Anglo-Catholic priests who hear confessions and anoint the sick. Roman Catholicism acknowledges these as part of their seven sacraments (Confession, Marriage, Baptism, Holy Orders, Confirmation, Eucharist and Unction) but would be considered as Rites in the Church of England. Doctrine AC doctrine believes the nature of the Church to be a divinely created instrument of Gods revelation to the world. It is sacramental in her essence and her imperative is to outward visible unity. Her doctrine takes note of history and ecumenical councils whilst responding to contemporary reflections. She proclaims more of a re-interpretation of the faith once delivered to the saints than a new formulation based on present fashion. The Thirty-Nine Articles of Faith make clear the distinctions between Anglican and Roman Catholic comprehension of doctrine. Whilst the Articles were written so to be open to interpretation, Anglo-Catholics protect Catholic practices and beliefs as being consistent with them. Liberal/Inclusive Catholics Liberal Catholics more readily embrace change and accept new insights in theology; liturgy and moral theology (i.e. issues surrounding homosexuality). The Liberal tradition has emphasized the importance of the use of reason in theological exploration. It has stressed the need to develop Christian belief and practice in order to respond creatively to wider advances in human knowledge and understanding and the importance of social and political action in forwarding Gods kingdom. (https://www.cofe.anglican.org/about/history/index.html) Liberal-Catholics seek to be inclusive and embrace the diversity of faith; rejoicing in working ecumenically and are generally more accommodating, with freedom and liberty. Modern Catholics Modern Catholics broadly accept the Tractarian/ Sacramental position. Within current theological debates, liberal thinking and the ordination and consecration of women is accepted. Prayer -Book Catholics Prayer- Book Catholics were loyal to the 1662 Book of Common -Prayer though prefaces such as Benedictus- qui -venit, Agnus- Die and prayer of oblation said as part of the canon by the priest, is preferable. PBC lean towards the late Medieval way of ceremony, church adornment and gothic vestments. Traditional Sarum -Rite applies an altar, set with a cross and two candles, framed by a cloth dossal and two side curtains. Sense and Sacramental Catholic spirituality experiences the presence and power of God sacramentally. The Holy Sacraments enable Christians to encounter the love and presence of God. Within liturgical celebrations catholic Christians use symbolic mannerisms; making the sign of the cross, incensing and anointing, genuflecting and bowing to the altar and before the Reservation of the Blessed Sacrament in recognising Gods presence. Participating in the Sacraments empowers a profound sacramental appreciation; where just as Christ is present in bread and wine (John 6: 51-58) many other facets of life can also be altered by Gods presence and supremacy. Liturgical Life and Practice Let my prayer rise before you like incense. (Psalm141: 2) Liturgy is not individualistic but is an action in which the whole church participates. The liturgical life of the church is crucial to catholic spirituality; holding fast to a rigorous public discipline of prayer life through saying the daily Offices. This complements the evangelical tradition whose emphasis is on a more personal devotion. The way people pray shapes their identity but a church that lives on extemporary prayer and a non- Eucharist worship does not have a catholic or Anglican identity. Catholic liturgy is well-ordered with the belief that liturgical worship emphasizes the meaning of being Christian within the world with the identity that history, Church and mission go together (Croft. A. 2008. p. 78). Anglo-Catholic liturgy is shaped by the six points of Eucharistic practice from the Tractarian Movement; Vestments, Eastward-facing Masses, Altar Lights, Un-Leavened bread and water mixed with the wine at Eucharist and using Incense. (http://anglicanhistory.org/ england/misc/bell_oxford1933.html) Priesthood The nature of the Church is to be a priestly body' (1 Peter 2: 5, 9-10). Ordained priests are called out by the Church as priests to the priestly community. All Catholics would agree about the belief in the Communion of Saints, offering prayers for the faithful departed, asking for the intercession of Saints, the importance of priests and the impossibility of lay presidency but would disagree on the issues of women and celibacy. Catholics believe that the ordained sacred priesthood is sacramental with some Anglo-Catholics encouraging their priests to live celibate lives. Priests are seen as a sacramental and visible presence of Christ and a high doctrine of what the Church can do as the people of God moving as the Spirit of God. The Church is the Sacrament of Christ, (Bunting. Ian.. 2006. p. 101) uniting us with God and Jesus Christ through word, sacrament and the recognition of the threefold orders of ministry. (Croft. S. 2008. p. 81) Christian sacraments offer the care and support of life from birth to death and within this sacramental framework, the priest makes-present the divine grace at every stage and in every need. (Macquarrie. J. 1966. p. 437) The Eucharist Catholics have a high sacramental view and doctrine manifesting itself in the importance of Baptism and Eucharist. The Catholic view is that on behalf of the congregation and the whole Church, the priest offers/pleads the salvific action of Christ on the cross (Hebrews 4: 14- 5:10) where Christ brings home the reality to us of the everlasting benefits of His victory (John 6: 53-57) renewing our Christian response, thanksgiving and abandonment to Him. There is a strong belief in the Real Presence of Jesus Christ through the consecration of the elements of Bread and Wine where, Communion with Christ in the Eucharist presupposes his true presence, effectually signified by the bread and wine which, in this mystery, become his body and blood. (http://www.antioch.com.sg/cgi-bin/Agora-Pub/get/expressions/54.html?nogifs) However, to understand the Real Presence by His body and blood, must be realized within the framework of Christs redemptive and saving acts. This means Christs offering of himself for humanity to be reconciled to God the Father, in harmony and in life within Jesus Christ himself. The Eucharist and the celebration of Eucharistic liturgy, defines the identity of being Catholic. The Eucharist is an enactment, a drama, event, participation and proclamation with every sense appealed to. Discipleship Catholics believe the Church is sacramental in being Christs presence within the world; called to embrace the world with the gracious and transforming love of Christ. Catholic life is energised by Christs ongoing presence in Scripture, in the sacramental life of the catholic tradition and within prayer and comprehension. Being catholic pastorally takes seriously the prayer, Let me see the face of Christ in all people in the poor, the orphans, the destitute and through rage and anger. A catholic and global faith confirms that the image of God is everywhere. (http://www.archbishopofcanterbury.org/1925) Bishop Weston wrote, You cannot claim to worship Jesus in the Tabernacle, if you do not pity Jesus in the slums.. (+Weston -1923 Anglo-Catholic Congress) It is one thing having Christ in the Tabernacle but unless Christians engage by serving and searching for Christ in the needy and suffering and wash their feet (John 13: 1-17) then the Eucharist means nothing. To be catholic is to be universal and embracing, taking on essentially an incarnational view of Gods activity in the world, connecting social and Catholicism with Christ in the Eucharist and Christ in the world. This is the heart of true Catholic discipleship.