What Does It Mean To Be Catholic Religion Essay

What Does It Mean To Be Catholic Religion Essay 2) A Presentation on Anglican Theology in Contemporary focus. This will be the equivalent to 2,000 words -students are encouraged to explore the possibility of using alternative forms of assessment such as artwork, liturgy, website design or other creative forms. What does it mean to be catholic in the Church of England today? Inheritance The English Reformation in the 16th century was unlike the disposition of the Continental Reformation (i.e. Luther, Zwingli and French-Calvinism). Whereas the Continental Reformation introduced changes in Church Order by eradicating the order of Bishops and priests, the English Reformation, led by the Monarch King Henry VIII, retained the order of the Church whilst embracing Reform. Henry VIII, a reformed catholic, wanted to guarantee the continuity of Englands Catholic Church and the teachings of the early Church Fathers in the Creeds. Elizabeth I, a Protestant Monarch, looked for a moderate position, a middle-way religion which tolerated Catholicism. This prevented division and dissent among her people and fashioned a stable English Church where its doctrines were laid down in the Thirty-Nine Articles of 1563, a compromise between Roman Catholics and Protestantism.(http://bookoflife.org/history/europe/northern_renaissance/calvin.htm Previous theologians in the English Church with high-church beliefs, were strongly convinced that the Church was Gods chosen instrument called forth over against the existing Protestant view that the Church was created as a convenient institute of the Christian Church body. The Oxford Movement (1833-1845) brought a reaction that changed everything. Key figures Keble and John-Henry Newman emphasized the importance of the historic continuity of the church signified by the apostolic succession of the bishops and its sacramental doctrine (Sykes. S. 1988. p.30) and were keen to go back to the pre-Reformation doctrine and liturgy maintained in most of the revised Prayer Books. (Jones.C.1992. p.108) The Catholic tradition has been reinforced by the Oxford Movement. An awareness of Catholic heritage entails being part of the universal Church of Jesus Christ in its fullest expression of faith treasured and continuous from the time of Constantine through the Middle Ages to today. It has stressed the importance of the visible Church and its sacraments and the belief that the ministry of bishops, priests and deacons is a sign and instrument of the Church of Englands Catholic and apostolic identity. (https://www.cofe.anglican.org/about/history/ index.html) and considered essential to the Church life and the Apostolic Ordering of the Church. Today there are many broad catholic groups in the Church of England; Anglo-Catholics, the Society of the Sacred Cross, Forward in Faith and Affirming Catholicism, These groups, however, are not always united. Their fragmentation dates to the Tractarian Revival and involves the question of the English Churchs identity and integrity. Within the last twenty years there have been tensions over the ordination of women to the sacred priesthood and more recently, over headship and consecration of women as Bishops. The fundamental issue is where the authority of the Church is located. Conservative and traditional Anglo-Catholics are in allegiance with Conservative Evangelicals in the Church of England over the leadership issue. Their belief is that Christ chose to ordain men (Mark 3: 13-19) and that the Apostles did not ordain women (Acts 1:12 -26). Priests, therefore, must be male to act in persona Christus and thus retain ecumenical census. Secondly, there is the teaching of St. Pauls I do not allow women to teach men or have authority over a man. (1Timothy 2:12) There is a sense of vitality when a church is living out the five affirmed marks of mission: proclaiming the Gospel, nurturing and baptizing new believers, transforming communities, loving service and speaking out against injustice and sustaining the earth while protecting the integrity of creation. (www.anglicancommunion.org) Signs of growth would include eventful worship, on-going evangelism and prayer among others. However, it is important to remember that most churches will not always be firing on all five cylinders of the marks of mission. Within Anglicanism the term churchmanship (low, broad and high) describes a distinctive comprehension of church doctrine and liturgical practices by Christians associated with the Church of England and world-wide Anglican Communion. High Churchmanship is referred to as the Anglo-Catholic tradition; a label derived from a sub-group who, influenced by the Oxford Movement, are part of a tradition that emphasizes the continuity with what has gone before; the Catholic tradition. Within high churchmanship there is a spectrum of catholic terminology; (Liberal/Inclusive, Traditional Anglo-Catholic, Modern / Moderate and Prayer -Book Catholics). Traditional Anglo-Catholics Most traditional Catholics are Papalists who see themselves under the authority of papal primacy without actually being in communion with the Roman Church. Full communion with Roman, Western and the Eastern Orthodox Church is desired because the Pope is seen, as being the Patriarch of the West under Roman jurisdiction. Anglo-Catholics have a devotion to our Blessed Virgin Mary under Marys title Our Lady of Walsingham. Theologically, for some Anglo-Catholics, having a devotion to the Eucharist may be more significant for their spiritual and personal prayer-life rather than the celebration of the Mass. The Church of England teaches that only two Sacraments are necessary for salvation; Baptism and Eucharist but there are Anglo-Catholic priests who hear confessions and anoint the sick. Roman Catholicism acknowledges these as part of their seven sacraments (Confession, Marriage, Baptism, Holy Orders, Confirmation, Eucharist and Unction) but would be considered as Rites in the Church of England. Doctrine AC doctrine believes the nature of the Church to be a divinely created instrument of Gods revelation to the world. It is sacramental in her essence and her imperative is to outward visible unity. Her doctrine takes note of history and ecumenical councils whilst responding to contemporary reflections. She proclaims more of a re-interpretation of the faith once delivered to the saints than a new formulation based on present fashion. The Thirty-Nine Articles of Faith make clear the distinctions between Anglican and Roman Catholic comprehension of doctrine. Whilst the Articles were written so to be open to interpretation, Anglo-Catholics protect Catholic practices and beliefs as being consistent with them. Liberal/Inclusive Catholics Liberal Catholics more readily embrace change and accept new insights in theology; liturgy and moral theology (i.e. issues surrounding homosexuality). The Liberal tradition has emphasized the importance of the use of reason in theological exploration. It has stressed the need to develop Christian belief and practice in order to respond creatively to wider advances in human knowledge and understanding and the importance of social and political action in forwarding Gods kingdom. (https://www.cofe.anglican.org/about/history/index.html) Liberal-Catholics seek to be inclusive and embrace the diversity of faith; rejoicing in working ecumenically and are generally more accommodating, with freedom and liberty. Modern Catholics Modern Catholics broadly accept the Tractarian/ Sacramental position. Within current theological debates, liberal thinking and the ordination and consecration of women is accepted. Prayer -Book Catholics Prayer- Book Catholics were loyal to the 1662 Book of Common -Prayer though prefaces such as Benedictus- qui -venit, Agnus- Die and prayer of oblation said as part of the canon by the priest, is preferable. PBC lean towards the late Medieval way of ceremony, church adornment and gothic vestments. Traditional Sarum -Rite applies an altar, set with a cross and two candles, framed by a cloth dossal and two side curtains. Sense and Sacramental Catholic spirituality experiences the presence and power of God sacramentally. The Holy Sacraments enable Christians to encounter the love and presence of God. Within liturgical celebrations catholic Christians use symbolic mannerisms; making the sign of the cross, incensing and anointing, genuflecting and bowing to the altar and before the Reservation of the Blessed Sacrament in recognising Gods presence. Participating in the Sacraments empowers a profound sacramental appreciation; where just as Christ is present in bread and wine (John 6: 51-58) many other facets of life can also be altered by Gods presence and supremacy. Liturgical Life and Practice Let my prayer rise before you like incense. (Psalm141: 2) Liturgy is not individualistic but is an action in which the whole church participates. The liturgical life of the church is crucial to catholic spirituality; holding fast to a rigorous public discipline of prayer life through saying the daily Offices. This complements the evangelical tradition whose emphasis is on a more personal devotion. The way people pray shapes their identity but a church that lives on extemporary prayer and a non- Eucharist worship does not have a catholic or Anglican identity. Catholic liturgy is well-ordered with the belief that liturgical worship emphasizes the meaning of being Christian within the world with the identity that history, Church and mission go together (Croft. A. 2008. p. 78). Anglo-Catholic liturgy is shaped by the six points of Eucharistic practice from the Tractarian Movement; Vestments, Eastward-facing Masses, Altar Lights, Un-Leavened bread and water mixed with the wine at Eucharist and using Incense. (http://anglicanhistory.org/ england/misc/bell_oxford1933.html) Priesthood The nature of the Church is to be a priestly body' (1 Peter 2: 5, 9-10). Ordained priests are called out by the Church as priests to the priestly community. All Catholics would agree about the belief in the Communion of Saints, offering prayers for the faithful departed, asking for the intercession of Saints, the importance of priests and the impossibility of lay presidency but would disagree on the issues of women and celibacy. Catholics believe that the ordained sacred priesthood is sacramental with some Anglo-Catholics encouraging their priests to live celibate lives. Priests are seen as a sacramental and visible presence of Christ and a high doctrine of what the Church can do as the people of God moving as the Spirit of God. The Church is the Sacrament of Christ, (Bunting. Ian.. 2006. p. 101) uniting us with God and Jesus Christ through word, sacrament and the recognition of the threefold orders of ministry. (Croft. S. 2008. p. 81) Christian sacraments offer the care and support of life from birth to death and within this sacramental framework, the priest makes-present the divine grace at every stage and in every need. (Macquarrie. J. 1966. p. 437) The Eucharist Catholics have a high sacramental view and doctrine manifesting itself in the importance of Baptism and Eucharist. The Catholic view is that on behalf of the congregation and the whole Church, the priest offers/pleads the salvific action of Christ on the cross (Hebrews 4: 14- 5:10) where Christ brings home the reality to us of the everlasting benefits of His victory (John 6: 53-57) renewing our Christian response, thanksgiving and abandonment to Him. There is a strong belief in the Real Presence of Jesus Christ through the consecration of the elements of Bread and Wine where, Communion with Christ in the Eucharist presupposes his true presence, effectually signified by the bread and wine which, in this mystery, become his body and blood. (http://www.antioch.com.sg/cgi-bin/Agora-Pub/get/expressions/54.html?nogifs) However, to understand the Real Presence by His body and blood, must be realized within the framework of Christs redemptive and saving acts. This means Christs offering of himself for humanity to be reconciled to God the Father, in harmony and in life within Jesus Christ himself. The Eucharist and the celebration of Eucharistic liturgy, defines the identity of being Catholic. The Eucharist is an enactment, a drama, event, participation and proclamation with every sense appealed to. Discipleship Catholics believe the Church is sacramental in being Christs presence within the world; called to embrace the world with the gracious and transforming love of Christ. Catholic life is energised by Christs ongoing presence in Scripture, in the sacramental life of the catholic tradition and within prayer and comprehension. Being catholic pastorally takes seriously the prayer, Let me see the face of Christ in all people in the poor, the orphans, the destitute and through rage and anger. A catholic and global faith confirms that the image of God is everywhere. (http://www.archbishopofcanterbury.org/1925) Bishop Weston wrote, You cannot claim to worship Jesus in the Tabernacle, if you do not pity Jesus in the slums.. (+Weston -1923 Anglo-Catholic Congress) It is one thing having Christ in the Tabernacle but unless Christians engage by serving and searching for Christ in the needy and suffering and wash their feet (John 13: 1-17) then the Eucharist means nothing. To be catholic is to be universal and embracing, taking on essentially an incarnational view of Gods activity in the world, connecting social and Catholicism with Christ in the Eucharist and Christ in the world. This is the heart of true Catholic discipleship.

Miss Ophelia in Harriet Beecher Stowes Uncle Toms Cabin Essay

Miss Ophelia in Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Being the only Northerner to take a focal role in Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Miss Ophelia is a realistic adaptation of the ideal woman that Harriet Beecher Stowe proposes with the images of the other perfect women. She is educated, single, independent, ambitious, and motivated by a certain sense of duty. Unlike the other women in the novel, she is the one with the most masculine mannerisms: she relies on her thoughts rather than her emotions to make decisions about her life and political beliefs. However Miss Ophelia also appears to be the audience that Stowe is partially addressing -- those who feel like they know something about slavery, but who haven’t truly analyzed their own mind about their prejudices. This was one of the reasons why Stowe wrote her book: to connect with people who hadn’t yet decided what side of the Mason-Dixon line they fell on. Ophelia is the perfect example of either Northerners or Southerners who at first don’t have a strong opinion about slavery but after an encounter, experience, or a revelation finally find their voice. For Miss Ophelia, she discovers herself with the help of a little girl.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Little Eva attempts to explain to Ophelia about how they should love all and follow Jesus’ love for everyone. â€Å"Don’t you know that Jesus loves all alike? He is just as willing to love you, as me. He loves you just as I do, -only more, because he is better. He will help you to be good; and you can go to Heaven at last, and be an angel forever, just as much as if you were white. (p.245-6)† Even though Jesus loves both black and white folks, that can’t necessarily persuade Miss Ophelia to kiss and hug the slaves. â€Å"’It puts me in mind of mother,’ he said to Ophelia. ‘It is true what she told me, if we want to give sight to the blind, we must be willing to do as Christ did, - call them to us, and put our hands on them.’ ‘I’ve always had a prejudice against Negroes,’ said Miss Ophelia, ‘and it’s a fact, I never could bear to have that child touch me; but I didn’t think she knew it. (p. 246)† Even though Miss Ophelia has people trying to persuade her to fully embrace the other race, for one reason or another she just can’t bring herself to do it. She believes that it is wrong because that is what she was raised to think. On the other hand, St. Clare is the polar opposite t... ... the horrid souls to an afterlife in hell. Feminism is an unmistakable theme in this novel. Stowe portrays women as strong, independent characters and gives all of them very effective roles. In the end, it is the women who are the most religious. When readers are first introduced to Miss Ophelia they encounter a Vermonter who has beliefs about slavery but no emotions to back up her words. For all of her duty and religious piety, she must have love, emotion and feeling to back up her words for them to be of any significance. Then through interaction with other characters in the book, Miss Ophelia’s morals and beliefs slowly begin to solidify. By the end of the book she is deeply rooted and emotionally connected to everything she says. This is exactly the type of reader that Stowe wished to reach. Someone who maybe wasn’t too sure on how they felt about paying money for someone’s life would hopefully, once finished with Uncle Tom’s Cabin, realize their own ideals and opinions about life for Negroes i n the South and then try to do something to help them leave their lives of horror. Works Cited Stowe, Harriet Beecher. Uncle Tom’s Cabin. W.W. Norton & Co, Inc. New York, 1994 Miss Ophelia in Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin Essay Miss Ophelia in Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Being the only Northerner to take a focal role in Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Miss Ophelia is a realistic adaptation of the ideal woman that Harriet Beecher Stowe proposes with the images of the other perfect women. She is educated, single, independent, ambitious, and motivated by a certain sense of duty. Unlike the other women in the novel, she is the one with the most masculine mannerisms: she relies on her thoughts rather than her emotions to make decisions about her life and political beliefs. However Miss Ophelia also appears to be the audience that Stowe is partially addressing -- those who feel like they know something about slavery, but who haven’t truly analyzed their own mind about their prejudices. This was one of the reasons why Stowe wrote her book: to connect with people who hadn’t yet decided what side of the Mason-Dixon line they fell on. Ophelia is the perfect example of either Northerners or Southerners who at first don’t have a strong opinion about slavery but after an encounter, experience, or a revelation finally find their voice. For Miss Ophelia, she discovers herself with the help of a little girl.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Little Eva attempts to explain to Ophelia about how they should love all and follow Jesus’ love for everyone. â€Å"Don’t you know that Jesus loves all alike? He is just as willing to love you, as me. He loves you just as I do, -only more, because he is better. He will help you to be good; and you can go to Heaven at last, and be an angel forever, just as much as if you were white. (p.245-6)† Even though Jesus loves both black and white folks, that can’t necessarily persuade Miss Ophelia to kiss and hug the slaves. â€Å"’It puts me in mind of mother,’ he said to Ophelia. ‘It is true what she told me, if we want to give sight to the blind, we must be willing to do as Christ did, - call them to us, and put our hands on them.’ ‘I’ve always had a prejudice against Negroes,’ said Miss Ophelia, ‘and it’s a fact, I never could bear to have that child touch me; but I didn’t think she knew it. (p. 246)† Even though Miss Ophelia has people trying to persuade her to fully embrace the other race, for one reason or another she just can’t bring herself to do it. She believes that it is wrong because that is what she was raised to think. On the other hand, St. Clare is the polar opposite t... ... the horrid souls to an afterlife in hell. Feminism is an unmistakable theme in this novel. Stowe portrays women as strong, independent characters and gives all of them very effective roles. In the end, it is the women who are the most religious. When readers are first introduced to Miss Ophelia they encounter a Vermonter who has beliefs about slavery but no emotions to back up her words. For all of her duty and religious piety, she must have love, emotion and feeling to back up her words for them to be of any significance. Then through interaction with other characters in the book, Miss Ophelia’s morals and beliefs slowly begin to solidify. By the end of the book she is deeply rooted and emotionally connected to everything she says. This is exactly the type of reader that Stowe wished to reach. Someone who maybe wasn’t too sure on how they felt about paying money for someone’s life would hopefully, once finished with Uncle Tom’s Cabin, realize their own ideals and opinions about life for Negroes i n the South and then try to do something to help them leave their lives of horror. Works Cited Stowe, Harriet Beecher. Uncle Tom’s Cabin. W.W. Norton & Co, Inc. New York, 1994

The July Plot Failed Largely Because of Popular Support for Hitler

The German public had met the outbreak of World War II with a general sense of apprehension. Although Hitler had been admired for his achievements thus far, it was becoming increasingly obvious to the German public that the regeneration of their economy would come at a price. Hitler made considerable achievements in political and economic fields. He also addressed military matters and to some extent social policy. The Enabling Bill was passed in March 1933, with opposition coming only from the Socialists. This was due to the threat posed by the development of the Gestapo and of course, the SS, which had advanced â€Å"from improvised terror of the early years to the gigantic concentration-camp system of the extermination era. † (Bracher – 1970) As a result of relentless persecution and the introduction of stringent laws, various groups emerged, with a mutual opposition to Nazi conformity. Unfortunately there was no single, unified resistance movement, which meant that any kind of successful campaign proved difficult to initiate, especially under the close eye of the Gestapo. Resistance ranged from youth groups such as the Edelweiss Pirates, committing petty crimes, to the Beck-Goerdeler group and the Kreisau Circle who made attempts on Hitler's life. At the same time there was a great deal of support for Hitler and allegiance to him, which made it more difficult still for the resistance groups to take any action. The Edelweiss Pirates were a prime example of youth resistance to Nazi conformity. They consisted of mostly working class youths. Some had refused to join the Hitler youth because of the lifestyle it would have imposed upon them. Others had simply dropped out from the Hitler Youth presumably because they disagreed with the programme. They daubed graffiti on public walls, disturbed uniformed officials and held pitched battles with the Hitler Youth. On a greater scale, groups such as the Kreisau Circle and the Beck-Goerdeler Group spoke actively about ending the Nazi regime and looked towards a post Nazi Germany. The founders of the Beck-Goerdeler group, Ludwig Beck and Carl Goerdeler, had both held positions in Hitler's governmental office. Beck was Chief of General Staff and Goerdeler was Commissioner, having remained in office after the government of Heinrich Bruning. Beck particularly objected to Hitler's attempts to take over the army. He sent a messenger to London to seek military aid from Neville Chamberlain to help prevent Germany invading Czechoslovakia. However, Chamberlain's regime was one of appeasement. Hitler learned of Beck's opposition and he was thrown out of office. From there on in he kept in touch with many others who opposed Hitler's regime. Goerdeler resigned from office in 1934 after disagreement with Hitler's policies, publicly opposed German rearmament and the Nuremberg Laws and was appalled by the Munich Agreement whereby the Sudetenland was taken from Czechoslovakia and given back to Germany. He made contact with Beck and became involved in the July Plot where he agreed to become Chancellor in the proposed office should the plot prove successful. There were various other key figures within the Beck-Goerdeler group such as Henning von Tresckow, a general staff officer during the Second World War, and Captain Wilhelm Canaris who worked with Himmler and SS intelligence but leaked information to Beck and Goerdeler. However, one figure emerged as an active leader of the Beck-Goerdeler group by the name of Major Claus von Stauffenberg. Appalled by the atrocities of the SS as a member of the general staff, he began to associate with Henning von Tresckow and others. He was soon promoted to major and was badly injured when his car was attacked by enemy aircraft and rolled into a minefield. While recovering from his injuries he decided to join the Beck-Goerdeler group in the July Plot. It was decided among the group that Hitler and Himmler must be eliminated. Once that was done, it was planned for troops in Berlin to seize key government buildings, telephone and signal centres and radio stations. The Kreisau Circle was a group of German professionals, army officers and academics who were opposed to Nazism. Founded in 1933, it was led by Count Helmuth von Moltke, who was born in Kreisau itself and who worked closely with Wilhelm Canaris and Hans Oster. In 1939 he became financial adviser to Abwehr, the German military intelligence organization. Many of the members of Abwehr became active in the resistance movement in Germany, including von Moltke, Oster, and Canaris who was head of Abwehr. Members of the Kreisau Circle frequently held their meetings on von Moltke's estate. They saw defeat in the war as inevitable and post war planning and reorganisation as essential. Hitler and the Nazi party were threatened not only by active resistance groups, but also by various organisations, not least the German Army. In fact, according to Dr. Klaus Hildebrand in his book â€Å"The Third Reich,† â€Å"Two major political and social forces, namely big business and the army, managed to resist the party's totalitarian demands until 1936 and 1938 respectively, when they were brought under strict control. † The extract is taken from â€Å"The Third Reich† written by Dr. Klaus Hildebrand, first published in 1984 and translated from German into English. The date of issue causes the matter of bias to be somewhat disregarded. Had the book have been published 30 years earlier, the authors view would have been far more tainted. Resistance groups such as the Beck-Goerdeler Group and the Kreisau Circle realised that political overthrow of the Nazi government was unrealistic. It was becoming increasingly obvious that in order to seize power, a coup d'etat was the only answer. Based on the above source, one would expect that a military coup wasn't out of the question. However, when approached, the army were uncooperative and, according to Alan Bullock, â€Å"The army's illusions had helped to consolidate Nazi rule† The quote is taken from Bullock's â€Å"Hitler – A Study in Tyranny,† which was first published in 1952. A well-acclaimed book, translated into 14 languages, and written by a former tutor of modern history who lived through both World Wars, it certainly seems as though this book would prove valuable to any study set in this context. This particular quote contradicts the previous extract from Hildebrand's â€Å"The Third Reich† and leads us to believe that the army helped to reinforce Nazi rule rather than oppose it. Some might jump to the conclusion that the reason for the difference between the two sources lies in the nationality of the authors. This is unlikely but can be taken into account as Dr. Hildebrand is German and Bullock is British. A more important factor perhaps is the date of publication of both books. Having been published in 1952, only 7 years after the end of the war, Bullock's biography may have been influenced by public opinion, which would certainly have been strong at the time, and also lack of knowledge about the German Army. Additionally, Bullock was probably one of the first authors to write such a well-acclaimed book addressing events of the Second World War. Therefore, one might feasibly presume that his book left room for improvement as there have been countless books written since, on Hitler and on World War II. Bullock could have used primary sources, eyewitnesses and indeed his own experiences to his advantage. Dr. Klaus Hildebrand, having first published his book in 1984, would have had a wealth of material to help form his opinions and arguments. He could have used primary and secondary sources and views of other historians since the period of study. Bullock would have found this more difficult. However, Bullock had access to eyewitnesses and primary sources that Hildebrand may not have found quite so easily during the 1980s. Perhaps the reason Bullock saw the army as having ‘illusions' lies in the fact that Hitler manipulated the army in order to prevent any threat to his totalitarian rule. It was important that he had their unconditional support as, without it, he could not maintain a secure state, and due to the severity of his regime, could even risk a military coup. He introduced a system of gradual Nazi infiltration into the army. Furthermore, with the emergence of the Hitler Youth who were also given admittance, the army were bound to become more sympathetic to Nazi sentiments. Despite Hitler's attempts to promote Nazism within the army, he felt he still had to earn their respect somehow. The Rohm Purge of 1934 proved convenient as it gave Hitler the opportunity to eliminate those whom he felt threatened the Nazi regime whilst at the same time satisfying the Army. He instigated the Rohm Purge or the ‘Night of the Longknives' in July of 1934. On July 1st he ordered that the detained Ernst Rohm, leader of the SA, be executed. This followed a series of executions and arrests of various SA members. The Army regarded the SA as an unruly and threatening group and thus approved of their elimination. In order to ensure he had the army's respect, Hitler enforced their pledge to the following oath: â€Å"I swear by God this sacred oath: that I will render unconditional obedience to the Fuhrer of the German Reich and people of Adolf Hitler, the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, and will be ready as a brave soldier to risk my life at any time for this oath. † (Document 1 – prescribed document pack) The above oath was a prime example of allegiance to Hitler and it made each soldiers' commitment morally binding. It would suggest, therefore, that those who would deviate from their duties and dare to oppose Hitler would be committing an act of treachery and abandoning their morals at the same time. The oath was taken on August 2nd 1934, almost immediately after the death of General von Hindenburg. This was significant as the army had great respect for Hindenburg and Hitler had to ensure he had a similar level of respect or risk a military coup. As a result of this pledge and the army's approval of the Rohm Purge, it was always going to prove difficult to promote anti-Nazi sentiments within their ranks. It must be said that, aside from popular support for Hitler, the July Plot and indeed many other attempts on Hitler's life suffered from severe misfortune. An unlikely series of flukes ensured that Hitler remained unscathed by any of the attempts until the final July Plot. â€Å"General Franz Halder and Henning von Tresckow intended to use a bomb to assassinate Hitler but the device failed to detonate†¦ Field Marshal von Witzhelben intended to shoot Hitler at the Champs Elysees. Sadly Hitler declined his invitation to visit Paris†¦ Colonel von Gersdorff agreed to blow up both himself and Hitler when they shook hands but he failed to get close enough† The above extract and the oath of allegiance are taken from â€Å"David Evans and Jane Jenkins Years of Weimar and the Third Reich, 1999. † The oath is useful to an historian as a primary source. It demonstrates why it might have proven difficult to incite resistance against Hitler and thus gain support for the July Plot. As a direct translation it should not suffer from any form of bias. The above extract, in summarising the various attempts on Hitler's life, is useful in its portrayal of the desperate measures taken by resistance groups. David Evans and Jane Jenkins are specialised historians in this subject area and will have used both primary sources, secondary sources and other historians' views as well as their own knowledge. The date of publication of the sources would ensure that they were free from censorship. Additionally, any bias that might have been brought about during the post-war area will have been discounted by this time. By the end of 1943, The Gestapo and Himmler's SD had succeeded in dispersing most anti-Nazi resistance within Germany. Key figures of resistance had been arrested or invalidated in some way. Hans Oster, one of the heads of German military intelligence, who had maintained active resistance against Hitler, was placed under close surveillance. In January 1944 Moltke, a leading figure in the Kreisau Circle, had also been arrested after it was discovered that he was warning conspirators that they were about to be arrested. Around the same time Beck of the Beck-Goerdeler group underwent a serious cancer operation and his health was unstable. Resistance was effectively in disarray. Again in 1944, Canaris had been dismissed as head of Abwehr on grounds of incompetence and thus the resistance suffered from a lack of information on Hitler's movements. Thankfully Stauffenberg was appointed as Chief of Staff to General Fromm, head of the Home Army. From there he would have ample information on Hitler's whereabouts. In the summer of 1944 Rommel was approached about joining the July Plot. He refused, criticising their tactics and claiming that assassination would turn Hitler into a martyr. Instead he suggested that Hitler should be arrested and brought to trial. However, on 17th July Rommel was injured when a British fighter aircraft attacked his car in Northern France. Furthermore, and on the same day, Goerdeler was arrested with lists for the provisional government. German resistance had suffered a terrible run of bad luck. Nevertheless, plans to assassinate Hitler and seize Berlin were put into action. On July 20th, Stauffenberg's presence was requested at a conference to report on the state of the Home Army. It was intended that Stauffenberg would assassinate Hitler using a time bomb in a briefcase. At the same time, it was proposed that resistance troops in Berlin would seize governmental buildings, telephone and signal centres and radio stations after arresting SS troops who might put a stop to the plan, known as ‘Operation Valkyrie. ‘ The conference had been put forward by half an hour from 1pm because Hitler had a meeting in the early afternoon with Mussolini. When it came to the conference, Stauffenberg arrived late having activated the time bomb in his briefcase. He placed it about 12 feet from where Hitler was stood and made a prompt exit. The bomb exploded and the plot almost proved successful; although the bomb had exploded in Hitler's vicinity, his good fortune remained a prevalent factor in his survival. â€Å"Hitler had been protected, partly by the table-top over which he was leaning at the time, and partly by the heavy wooden support on which the table rested and against which Stauffenberg's brief-case had been pushed before the bomb exploded† In spite of the fact that Hitler had sustained minor injuries and was fairly shaken, he delivered a speech to the public on the same day. The extract above is a fitting example of Hitler's uncanny good fortune and is taken from â€Å"Hitler A study in Tyranny,† written by Alan Bullock. The conspiracy fell apart quickly; General Fromm had Stauffenberg shot at midnight in the courtyard of the War Ministry and in the following months of vengeance, Hitler was sure to seek out all those involved and have them tortured and executed. In fact, many of those killed thereafter had no connection with the July Plot but were merely among a large group of people whom Hitler was wary of for one reason or another. Aside from Hitler's persistent fortuity and the loss key figures in German resistance, there were other factors that led to the failure of the July Plot. It could be said that the various assassination attempts including the July Plot failed due to lack of competence. The mere fact that so many assassination attempts were implemented would suggest that there was a sense of desperation in the hope of removing Hitler. The following extract quotes Henning von Tresckow when voicing his opinion to Stauffenberg: â€Å"The assassination must be attempted at all costs. If it should fail, action must still be taken in Berlin. For it is no longer a question of the practical aim: it must be demonstrated to the world and to history that the German resistance has decided on a supreme throw. Nothing matters in comparison with this. † The quote is again taken from â€Å"The Third Reich† written by Dr. Klaus Hildebrand. I believe it to be useful in its portrayal of the sheer desperation of the Beck-Goerdeler group in their attempt to remove Hitler. When looking at the failure of the July Plot one might ask what would have happened if the initial assassination attempt had succeeded. Different historians have different views as to what post Hitler Germany would have held in store. Some say the Beck-Goerdeler group's provisional government would have failed, some say they would have succeeded. Heinz Guderian was commander of the General Staff. As a result of the July Plot Guderian demanded the resignation of any officer who did not fully support the ideals of the Nazi Party. Over the next few months Guderian played a role in the Army Court of Honour that expelled hundreds of officers suspected of being opposed to Hitler's policies. Although willing to carry out a purge of the Army, Guderian disagreed with Hitler over strategy and he was dismissed from office on 28th March 1945. According to his book ‘Panzer Leader,' He believed that the resistance hadn't enough troops to defend their position. He believed essentially that Operation Valkyrie was a disaster and that even if Hitler had been assassinated, Germany would have been no worse or better off. Guderian joined the army in 1908 thus he had considerable military experience. He led the attack on Poland in September 1939 and his rapid success sent shockwaves throughout the world. One would assume that Guderian's view would therefore be one of value. Guderian stated that: â€Å"The officers and men assembled for Operation Valkyrie had not the slightest idea of what was going on. † However, having been published in 1953, there is likelihood that Guderian's book may have been influenced by public opinion. Furthermore Guderian served under Hitler and was witness to much propaganda that would have shamed and discredited the resistance movements. It is quite possible that Guderian could have taken on board some of Hitler's views on resistance movements such as the Beck-Goerdeler Group, which might explain his unenthusiastic view of their strategy. Albert Speer agrees with the fundamental idea that the coup was doomed from the start. He believed that the plot failed because of the extent of loyalty to Hitler. Speer first met Hitler in July 1933 as a member of the SS and was given the task of organising the Nuremberg Rally. He became Minister of Armaments and was a good administrator. He considerably raised production levels of armaments. He must have been familiar with Hitler and the degree of loyalty that he commanded. One might expect, then, that his claim might have been justified. However, it may once again be worthwhile to consider Speer's possible acceptance of Hitler's ideas as his own. If this was the case then Speer may have been misled as to how much loyalty to Hitler actually existed. Others believe that the plan would have succeeded. Certainly Bullock makes reference to the fact that in Paris, the plan actually worked. Conspirators in Paris, Vienna, Prague, Kassel, and Frankfurt continued to implement their plans even after the reported failure of the coup in Berlin. The plans made considerable achievements in Paris where some 1,200 SS and SD troops were arrested. It collapsed, however, simply because the assassination attempt on Hitler had failed. Added to this was the fact that the Navy and SS quickly began their counter measures. Bullock also looked upon the support of Rommel as a positive factor, claiming that: â€Å"His popularity would have been a considerable asset. † As already established, Bullock was a tutor in modern history at the same time as he was writing ‘Hitler a Study in Tyranny. ‘ He was also Vice Chancellor of Oxford University from 1969-73. He had a wealth of experience in the field of modern History and this particular book is hailed to be: ‘Acclaimed all over the world as an outstanding biography. ‘ David G. Williamson looks upon the failure of the July Plot somewhat sympathetically. He believes that, had the generals in Berlin have acted more decisively without waiting to hear whether or not Hitler was dead, they could have overthrown the SS and the SD as they did in Paris. Williamson is an expert in this field and has written several books on German Modern History including ‘The Third Reich,' which is quoted in document 11 of the prescribed document pack. This particular book was published in 1982. Williamson would therefore have had a great deal of material at his disposal. He will have used a range of primary and secondary sources as well as taking into consideration views of other historians. Some of his other titles include ‘Bismarck and Germany 1862-1890,' published in 1986, ‘Germany from Defeat to Partition, 1945-1963,' and ‘The Age of the Dictators,' not yet published. The views of Heinz Guderian and David G. Williamson differ greatly. We might again attribute this to their difference in nationality, though there are once more additional factors to be considered. Guderian's view might have been tainted greatly by a very influential Hitler whereas Williamson's view should have been free from any form of bias. The dates of publication also differ greatly. Guderian's book, ‘Panzer Leader' was published in 1953, probably written almost immediately after the war when the general consensus was certainly a biased one. Williamson's ‘The Third Reich' was published in 1982 when there was more material available, less propaganda and less influenced public opinion. I feel that support for Hitler was widespread, and where there wasn't support there was loyalty through fear. I believe that Himmler posed as much of a threat as Hitler as a Nazi aggressor and as head of the army from 1944, he could have overthrown any kind of provisional government set up by the Beck-Goerdeler Group upon assassination of Hitler. It would be wrong to say that the plot failed entirely due to popular support for Hitler and more feasible to propose that, as the essay title suggests, the plot failed largely due to popular support for Hitler. He gained the support of the army and had the support of the SA and later the SS. He also had a largely dedicated governmental cabinet. Any form of opposition was promptly eliminated. Of course, the July Plot also failed because of a succession of mishaps and poor organisation as previously mentioned.

Analysis Of The Bible Essay - 815 Words

The Bible follows an extremely logical and rational progression of events as God created the world in the seven days of creation. This rigid and systematic process in which God transforms and molds the world foreshadows the rigid and defined right and wrong that becomes an inherent and ubiquitous theme in the Bible such as the events of Adam and Eve and Cane and Abel. Furthermore, this theme is extended as â€Å"light is created and separated from darkness to designate day and night,† that there is only right and wrong and no moral ambiguity in between the two extremes of black and white. On the second day, this theme is again underscored when the â€Å"sky† was created to separate the water on earth from the water above.† This continual separation and dichotomies of the world demonstrates that God follows a systematic transformation of the creation of the world and this characteristic manifests itself later in his punishments towards Adam and Eve. This recurring theme continues to appear in Jesus’s Last Supper, Abel and Cane, and other biblical stories, further reinforcing the fact that ambiguity is nonexistent. The precedence of creation ending in the birth of humans inconspicuously points to humanity as God’s greatest and most noteworthy achievement. After the toil of creating the world God realized his work was â€Å"very good† when the â€Å"totality of creation was evaluated,† pointing to the concept the the whole is greater the sum of it points. While humanity is in fact the mostShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Of The Bible 1045 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"I felt like praying or something, when I was in bed, but I couldn t do it. I can’t always pray when I feel like it. In the first place, I’m sort of an atheist. I like Jesus and all, but I don’t care too much for the most of the other stuff in the Bible† (Salinger 99). According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory he argues, â€Å"personality consist of three mental entities called id, ego, and superego† (Nevid 470).   Although, these mental entities are not part of human s brain â€Å"he conceived them as a hypotheticalRead MoreAnalysis Of The Bible Letters From The Bible Essay1839 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction: Some of the most uplifting dialogues from the Bible were letters written by Paul while he was imprisoned. These letters awarded him the opportunity to articulate his thorough perception of genuine harmony and triumph that can only be achievable through Jesus Christ. By using Christ as an example of meekness and service, you can be blessed with oneness in unity with the Father. Paul’s sole purpose, attitude, goal and labor in the ministry illustrated his life in Christ. 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